NAMA PEOPLE: ABORIGINAL PEOPLE OF SOUTH AFRICA THAT FORMS PART OF THE KHOISAN GROUP

Nama (Namaqua) people are the nomadic, aboriginal Khoe-Kwadi and Afrikaans-speaking people that forms a sub-set of the larger Khoikhoi ethnolinguistic group of South Africa, Namibia and Botswana. The Nama are the largest group of the Khoikhoi people, most of whom have largely disappeared as a group, except for the Namas.

Sweet and beautiful Nama Girls at Northern Cape, South Africa. by Uncornered Market

Nama people and Herero people were historically exterminated by the German`s in their first world genocidal experiment which became famously known as Herero and Namaqua Genocide.  A  letter  written  by  a German  missionary to  his colleagues  captures the  violent sentiment  among Germans  in Hereroland supporting  the  annihilation of the Hereros and Namas:
             "The  Germans  are  consumed  with  inexpiable  hatred  and  a terrible
              thirst  for  revenge,  one  might  even  say  they  are  thirsting  for  the
              blood  of the  Herero[s].  All  you  hear these  days  is  "make  a  clean
              sweep,  hang  them, shoot  them  to the  last man,  give  no  quarter."  I
              shudder  to  think  what  may  happen  in  the  months  ahead.  The
              Germans will  doubtless exact a grim vengeance."

Nama people of Namibia

At least 80% of the total Nama and Herero populations perished. This was motivated by the German desire to establish a prosperous colony and this entailed the displacement of the indigenous people from their agricultural land. Large herds of cattle were confiscated and Nama and Herero people were driven into the desert and in some cases interred in concentration camps on the coast, for example at Shark Island. Additionally, the Nama and Herero people were forced into slave labour to build railway lines and to hunt for diamonds during the diamond rush.

A traditional dance of the Richtersveld, Northern Cape

The Nama people who were initially with the German`s changed their mind and fought alongside their Herero brethrens under the great Nama leaders Hendrik Witbooi.Under the command of von Trotha, the German army sought to engineer a crushing defeat of the Herero in the vicinity of the Waterberg (Pool, 1979: 210—11). In keeping with von Moltke's principles of separate deployment and encirclement, von Trotha sent his armies to annihilate the Herero at the Waterberg. Or, as he put it in his own words:
                   My initial plan for the Operation, which I always adhered to, was to encircle the
                   masses of Hereros at Waterberg, and to annihilate these masses with a simultaneous
                  blow, then to establish various stations to hunt down and disarm the
                  splinter groups who escaped, later to lay hands on the captains by putting prize
                  money on their heads and formally to sentence them to death. (von Trotha's
                  diaries cited in Pool, 1991: 251).

Nama mother and child from Namibia

Many of the Nama clans live in Central Namibia and the other smaller groups live in Namaqualand, which today straddles the Namibian border with South Africa. As descendants of the Khoekhoe the Nama resemble the San and the Topnaar  in appearance and language. The Nama are a musically talented people and songs and poetry are handed down through the generations. Nama women are highly skilled artisans, their embroidery and appliqué work, regarded as an art form, consists of brightly colored scenes inspired by the environment and the lifestyles of the Nama people.
This nomadic tribes traditionally moved with their cattle and portable huts. The huts are constructed of rush-mats and wooden structures. The only place, where this traditional lifestyle still exists, is the South African section of the /Ai-/Ais Richtersveld Transfrontier Park.

Today, there are 13 Nama tribes, for the most part still practicing communal land ownership. There are 246 000 in Namibia, 776,000 in South Africa and to a lesser degree 1600 in Botswana.
In Namibia Nama people are at Sesfontein in Kaokoland, in the far south at places like Warmbad, or around Mariental, Tses, Gibeon, Maltahöhe, Helmeringhausen and east of Lüderitz in the southwestern corner of county.

                               Dancing Nama people
Language
 They traditionally speak the Nama language of the Khoe-Kwadi language family, the characteristic clicks are common to the languages of all Khoisan tribes. Many others also Nama also speak Afrikaans

                           Lovely and smiling Nama girl

History
The Nama people indigenous who are descendants of the larger Khoikhoi ethnolinguistic group are aboriginal people of South Africa. They settled in South Africa thousands of years alongside the San people long before the Bantu migrants came to South Africa.

 Nama Chief Jan Jonker Afrikaner led his tribe further north into central Namibia. As pastoral nomads the Nama often clashed with the Herero who were also looking for better grazing.The early colonialists referred to them as Hottentots. Their alternative historical name, "Namaqua", simply stems from the addition of the Khoekhoe language suffix "-qua/khwa", meaning "people" (found in the names of other Southern African nations like the Griqua)
 The conflicts came to an end when the German colonialists arrived and waged war on both peoples. Hendrik Witbooi was a prominent figure in the Namas’ struggle against the colonialists and is now pictured on the N$ 10 note.
Herero and Nama Rising
The great Herero Rising under Samuel Maherero
In January 1904, the great Herero Rising under Samuel Maherero began in Okahandja. Apparently, it had been planned for a long time. The rebellion quickly spread through the whole Herero region and Damaraland. 123 white men died, rail tracks and telephone connections were interrupted, farms and public buildings rose in flames. Only when the German protection troops engaged, the tide turned. In spite of an enforcement to as many as 15 000 soldiers, it became clear that the insurgents were well armed and well versed in the art of war. General Lieutenant von Trotha, who had taken over command of the German troops from Mayor Leutwein, did not share his predecessors view that the Herero had been punished enough and the main task in the protectorate was to keep up the very important work strength of this people. Von Trotha wanted to eradicate the Herero people. In the battle of Waterberg, in August 1904, von Trotha closed in on thousands of Herero, leaving them only one route of escape: the path to the waterless dry savannah of Omaheke. He drove the Herero people into the desert. Three quarters of all Hereros died in this war of extermination.

The Nama Rising under Hendrik Witbooi
At the same time, the Nama rose against the Germans. They fought a bitter guerrilla war, lead by Hendrik Witbooi and Jacob Morenga. Witbooi died in October 1905 in an attack on a German supply transport. Witbooi’s resistance was dead, but his followers kept fighting. new leaders stepped in at the head of the movement. The last of them was Jacob Morenga. He was killed in 1907 by Cape police when he tried to organize operations against the Germans out of the cape region. Apparently, the British were concerned that Morenga might create turmoil in the cape region, as well.
After 1907, the Nama and Herero tribes were as good as exterminated. Between 20 000 and 30 000 Herero had died up to that date. About 2 500 Germans had lost their lives in the fights. All Black people were denied the right to own land or cattle, the tribal areas and occasional property were confiscated. Many members of the tribes died in concentration camps, survivors were “resettled” in reservations. Tribes in more remote areas like the Ovambo, Damara, Himba and the Rehoboter Baster were affected by this development.

Following the discovery of diamonds at the mouth of the Orange River in the 1920s, however, prospectors began moving into the region, establishing towns at Alexander Bay and Port Nolloth, a process that accelerated the appropriation of traditional lands that had begun early in the colonial period. Under apartheid, remaining pastoralists were encouraged to abandon their traditional lifestyle in favour of village life.

In 1991, a portion of Namaqualand (home of the Nama and one of the last true wilderness areas of South Africa) became the Richtersveld National Park. In December 2002, ancestral lands, including the park, were returned to community ownership and the governments of South Africa and Namibia embarked on the development of a transfrontier park from the west coast of southern Africa to the desert interior, absorbing the Richtersveld National Park. Today, the Richtersveld National Park is one of the few places where the original Nama traditions survive. Here, the Nama still move with the seasons and speak their language. The traditional Nama dwelling – the |haru oms, or portable rush-mat covered domed hut – is a reflection of a nomadic way of life, offering a cool haven against the blistering heat of the sun, yet easy to pack and move if grazing lands become scarce.

At the dawn of the 19th century, Oorlam people encroached Namaqualand and Damaraland. They likewise descended from indigenous Khoikhoi but are a group who mixed with slaves from Madagascar, India, and Indonesia.[ After two centuries of assimilation into the Nama culture, many Oorlams today regard Khoikhoigowab (Damara/Nama) as their mother tongue. The distinction between Namas and Oorlams has gradually disappeared over time to an extent where they are today regarded as one ethnic group, despite their different backgrounds

                                  Nama man from Namibia blowing horn
Nama tribes
Apart from Oorlam clans there are nine known sub-tribes, or clans, of Nama. Their names and tribal centres are:
Khaiǁkhaun (Red Nation) at Hoachanas, the main group and the oldest Nama clan in Namibia
ǃGamiǂnun (Bondelswarts) at Warmbad
ǂAonin (Southern Topnaars) at Rooibank
ǃGomen (Northern Topnaars) at Sesfontein
ǃKharakhoen (Fransman Nama) at Gochas. After being defeated by Imperial Germany's Schutztruppe in the Battle of Swartfontein on 15 January 1905, this Nama group split into two. Part of the ǃKharakhoen fled to Lokgwabe, Botswana, and stayed there permanently.
ǁHawoben (Veldschoendragers) at Koës
ǁOgain (Groot Doden) at Schlip
ǁKhauǀgoan (Swartbooi Nama) at Rehoboth, later at Salem, Ameib, and Franzfontein
The Kharoǃoan (Keetmanshoop Nama) under the leadership of Hendrik Tsieb split from the Red Nation in February 1850 and settled at Keetmanshoop

Nama tribe kids

Wedding ritual

Namas have a complicated wedding ritual. First the man has to discuss his intentions with his family. If they agree they will advise him of the customs to ask the bride's family and then accompany him to the place she lives. The yard at the bride's living place is prepared prior to the future husband's family's arrival, animal hides are laid out in the corners for the different groups to sit down and discuss.

The groom's family ask for the gate to be opened. If this is granted, the groom is interrogated about details of the bride, including the circumstances of their first meeting and how to identify her body marks to make sure both know each other well. If the bride is pregnant or already has children from her future husband or someone else, the bride is subjected to the "door cleansing" ceremony (slaughtering and consuming a snow-white goat). After several days the wedding ritual continues in reverse; the bride's family visits the clan of the groom. If all is to the satisfaction of the two clans, an engagement day is announced.

At the engagement, the groom's family brings live animals to the woman's family home. The animals are slaughtered, hung on three sticks, and each part is offered to the bride's family. Other items like bags of sugar or flour are only offered in quantities of two or four to indicate that there will always be abundance of food. This process is also celebrated in reverse at the man's family home. White flags are mounted on both family's houses which may not be taken off but wither or are blown off by the wind one day.

The wedding preparations can take up to one year. The family of the groom makes a gift to the bride's mother, traditionally a cow and a calf, for she has raised the bride at her breast. A bargaining process accompanies the gift that can take weeks in itself. On wedding day, both families provide animals and other food and bring it to the bride's home. The wedding itself takes place in a church. Festivities afterward go on for several days. The first night after the wedding the couple spends separately. On the next morning, they set off for their own home

                         Nama woman

 For more on Nama people search Khoikhoi people on my page.

source:http://www.namibiatourism.org/people/nama

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SAHO PEOPLE: ANCIENT AGRO-PASTORAL PEOPLE OF ERITREA

 The Saho (Soho) people an agro-pastoral and amalgamated ethnolinguistic and cultural group belonging to the larger Cushitic ethnic group inhabiting the Horn of Africa. They are principally concentrated in Eritrea, with some also living in adjacent parts of Ethiopia. Ancient Saho speaking people are descendants of ancient Kushites.

Beautiful woman from Saho tribe of Eritrea

The term Kushite derives from the ancient peoples of North East Africa, which started to live in this part of Africa since more than 5000 B.C., with their own culture and language.  The ancient Kushite peoples are those who spoke languages of the Kushite branch of the Afro-Asiatic (also known as Hamito-Semitic) family. They are the indigenous peoples of the present day Eritrea, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya.
The word "Saho" means "nomad," ("saa" means animals and "hoo" means caretaker), which is also an expression of their previous pastoral way of life.

                              Saho women

In Eritrea, Saho mainly dwell in the Eastern foothills of Akele-Saho (aka Akele-guzai) and Semhar occupying 60% or more of the landmass. Sahos’ are also found intermingled amongst Tigrinia speaking populace in parts of Eritrea’s highland regions (Akeleguzai, Seraye and Hamasein). They also intermingle with Tigre speaking tribes in Lowland regions such as Barka.

Saho woman

Language
 The Saho people speak the Saho language (saahot waani or saahot zirho), which belongs to the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family, as a mother tongue. Historians and anthropologists as yet to accurately determine the exact archeological time in which Kushitic languages started to split until they become separate languages as known in modern times.  According to Bender and most scholars, the split of the Saho language from the rest of the East Kushitic language took place about four thousand years ago. It is believed that this split happened slowly and gradually over many centuries. Thus, Saho speaking ancestors started to become a separate ‘linguistic and ethnic group’ about four thousand years ago.
Saho language is mainly spoken  in territories bounded by the bay of Idhafale in the east of Eritrea, the Laasi Ghedé valleys in the south, the Eritrea highlands to the west (Akele-Guzai, Shimezana) as well as in borders with Tigre on the west of Eritrea. It is also spoken in Ethiopia mainly in Tigray Region.
 The Kushitic languages are divided into 3 major subgroups. These include:  (a) East Kushitic languages (Saho, Afar, Somali and Sidama), (b) Central Kushitic or Agaw language (such as Bilen ), (c) South Kushitic languages in Kenya and Tanzanya. According to linguistics, the Kushites spoke historically closely related dialects of the same language and they all shared a common cultural heritage.
Saho language has four main dialects: Tarua, Assawurta, Minifre, and Irob. Irob is mainly spoken in Ethiopia
Although there is no reliable accurate statistics so far, it is believed that Saho is spoken by over 320,000 speakers.

Woman from Saho tribe

Relationship between Saho & Afar language:
“The Afar & Saho have over 70% of linguistic relationships and they can communicate easily with each other without any difficulty”. (Abdulkader S. Mohammed, 1977 p8)
“The Afar & Saho share a large number of words with the same meaning, cognates are usually closely related. This is because once people speaking a common language have become socially or geographically separated (…). But some words are more resistant to borrowing than others, that means they hare less subject to change over time. In East-Cushitic languages, such words include those for universal concepts [eat, drink, rain, sky, Sun, moon, Star, Earth, cattle, etc..] and basic parts of human body”. M Nuuh Ali (1985: 21-22).
According to Leo Reinisch, (1886:795) that the Afar & Saho are not two languages but the same language. The structure & grammatical forms are the same one language. And this lies in their geographical location and isolation especially by the Saho in the highlands who kept the language.
Herbert S. Lewis (1966:42) assumes that Afar & Saho have evidently been in their area long enough to have diverged into two closely related but distinctly different languages.

History

The descendants of ancient Saho speaking people, are descendants of ancient Kushites who ruled Egypt in 25th dynasty and played a central role in Africa’s greatest and oldest civilization at Meroe, the present day northern Sudan and lower Egypt.

Ancient Saho speaking people, as descendants of ancient Kushites, have left strong traceable evidence of their over 5000 years of rich history. The traceable evidence include ancient rock paintings, monuments steles, ruined building, ancient pottery … etc. Some of these are found in Saho land such as in (Qohaito, Kaskase, Adulis (Adola/Ado-Lai ), Balaw Kalaw, ruins of  Matara 

Historians and anthropologists as yet to accurately determine the exact archeological time in which Kushitic languages started to split until they become as separate languages as know in modern times.  According to Bender and most scholars, the split of the Saho language from the rest of the East Kushitic language took place about four thousand years ago. It is believed that this split happened slowly and gradually over many centuries. Thus, Saho speaking ancestors started to become a separate ‘linguistic and ethnic group’ about four thousand years ago.

According to the oral traditions, the Idda, Kabota and Asa-bora are the most ancient Saho ancestors in the current Saho region. The Saho call these three tribes the guardians of the Saho land (Badho Ambadish or Badho Sogos in Saho language).  As the oral history narrates "an Idda man married a woman from kabota tribe and later destroyed Kabota in a bitter war, so that Idda became the dominant tribe in the region, and extended its powers up to the highlands. The Asabora, according to legends, are ancestors of the Minifere tribeswho commonly descended from one Asabora woman. 

Oral traditions maintain that some Saho clans came from diverse geographical origins and all adopted Saho, as their common language and all shared a common cultural heritage.  Some Saho clans affiliate their origins to Islamic dignitaries during Khilafa period including to one of the four Khalifas themselves. This should not be surprising, as well known in this region; peoples of the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula have a long history of human migration across the red sea, intermarriage, intensive linguistic, social and cultural exchange.

The people of Saho were known for their fierce opposition to any foreign invaders and  colonial aggressors. Their oral history and poems tell many amazing stories of bravery and sacrifices they had offered over the last two centuries. They uncompromisingly and heroically defended their beloved land from repeated attempts of highland Abyssinian rulers to invade their land and had defeated Raas Araia and Raas Alula until the Italians invaded Eritrea in 1889.

The Saho, before the Italians’ occupation, were organised as clans, which have become federated into several major tribes. They had chiefs, their affairs being managed by councils of elders. This did not suit the Italians’ need for close control and accordingly they appointed chiefs in charge of each tribe: a measure, which made for administrative efficiency if not for popularity. These chiefs have been dismissed outright by the current government without introducing an alternative system.

Today, the risk of losing oral Saho history and heritage is greater than ever. It is like watching strong winds spreading great fire with little resistance hoping that we would be left with some of our possessions. Therefore there is an urgent call for spreading awareness and a massive responsibility upon every concerned individual and every organised Saho group of the current generation, wherever they are, to collate and document their ancestors’ history, however they can.

Saho tribes

The Saho people as it has already been narrated is composed of several tribes (kisho, meela or qabila). This includes:

1- ASA BORA and it consists of; Asa Asa Bora, Da’ Asa Bora

2- ASAWURTA and it clans comprise;

A) Asa Lesan and it consists of: Hassan Dik, Hussain Dik, Malasa Dik, Hummad Durwa, Ahmaddin Dik, Gaddali Dik.

B), Lelish Are and it consists of: Abdalla Dik, Omar Dik, Eishe Dik, Diot Abusa.

C)Fokroti Are*, Asa Kare*, Faqih Dik*, Sarma Are*, Uruske Dabbasit Abusa*.

D) Beit Tawakkal, Beit Khalifa, Adefer & Beit Danya, Beit Suleiman, Logo Chewa  & Inda Asmail of 4te Asmera, Zingar of Dorfo.

3-BARADOTTA*

4-DABRI MELA and it consists of; Alades Are, Labhalet Are.

5-GADAFUR*

6-GALLE GIYA*

7-GINNI KARA*

8-HADO(aka HAZO)  and it comprises the following clans:

A) Asa Alila and consist of: Asa Ali Gaisha, Hammadi Gaisha, Asa Alila, Musabaggo, Bokite, Mahammad Kayya, Higoga, Omarto, Konsubifire, Amo-buri Gaisha, Danderi Hazoita.

B) LAASA and it consists of :Ona Dawud Gaisha, Ona Abdalla Gaisha, Ona Ismaeel Gaisha, Ona Omar Gaisha, Ona Ahmaddin Gaisha, Ona Ali Gaisha, Sheikha Abusso, Ab Dawuud Gaisha, Shum Omarto, Asa Lak Hena, Toujoumona, Shum Ahmaddo, Shum Hasanto, Ona Mahammad Dik, Bokite shum Bukoh dik, Maar dik, Asa Ibrahim Dik, Asa Abdalla dik, Semaye and Surrugso.

C) Shum Hummad Dik and it consist of : Sheikh Adamto, Dawud gafo dik, Talak, Maadar dik, Asa Alila (Barah).

9-HASABAT ARE,  and it consists of;Hamad Are; Aleit Are; Mieenqut Are and Sandaqa Are.

10-IDDA*

11-IROB and it consists of; Algadi  Are, Buknaitee Are , Hasaballa

12-KABOTA  and it consists of; Gorbey, Tabita, Hataba, Shekhait, Zakarit, Alirga

13-MINIFRE and it consists of the following  tribes;

A) GAASO and it is made up of the following clans: Shum Abdallah Gaisha, Yofish Gaisha, Shum Ahmad Gaisha, Hassan Gaisha, Silyan Gaisha, Asa Ushmaal, Oni Maal.

B) DAASAMO is made up of the following clans: Abdallah Harak, Naefie Harak, Mosat Harak, Subakum Are, Daili Are, Kundes, Illas.

C) SILAITA  and it comprises: Hakatti Are, Qum Mee Are, Zeila Are, Hilato, Abbarior, Abdiaa

D)FAKAD HARAK (aka FAKIH HARAK) and it comprises: Faqih Abubakar, Faqih Omar, Faqih Ahmad 

14-NAFEEAA*

15-SHEIKHA (These are families and tribes that crossed the Red Sea to spread Islam in Eritrea at different times. Hence, do not trace their linage to a common ancestor).

A)Intile Sheikh Are B) Sheikh Salim Are including Bet Sheikh Mahmoud and Ad Dirke in Sahel C) Danagulta  D) Hajji Abkur  E) Iror Naba F) Sheikh Dimbagog G) Sheikh Lahlaha H) Akhadar Abusa I)Muallim Dik J) Hajji Hedor

16-TARU3A and it consists of; Sara7 Are, Mosat Are.

17-SAATOT*

18- SALMUNTA and it consists of; A’sa Salmunta and Dat Salmunta

19-SANAFE (SAN3FE) and it consists of; Sheikh Umori and Uwaal Dik, Hassan Silah Dik,Umar Gorx Dik,Sancaffe Mahmoud Dik.

20-Samhar is home to a number of Saho clans and families that branched out from the main tribes that are listed above. Some of those we can trace are;

Qadida, Chewai Dik, Barole Dik, Sabbe Dik, Harak Dik, Haggi Wad Hamid Are, Shenghebai Dik, Sangor Dik, Khalifa Are, Adulai Are, Minni Are, Shehabi Are, Habona Are, Amir Dik, Zakaria Dik, Shemo Are, Tsewai Are, Hasino Are, Talke Are, Shikan Are, Sadiko Are, Edim Bagi Are, Sheik Humad Arkale Are, Sheikh Yassin Are, Ansara Are, Debrom Are, Falul Are, Dini Are, Gubbala Are, Yusuf Are, Unda Ali Are, Haggi Abdu Are, Khalifa Ahmad Are, Nabara Dik, Ali Babu Dik, Gadam Dik. 

For detailed info on Saho tribes  kindly read Abdulkader Saleh Mohammad`s book "The Saho of Eritrea: Ethnic Identity and National Consciousness.

Economy

They are agro-pastoralists and their subsistence economy relies livestock breeding and rain-fed agriculture, based on communal land ownership system. Prior to the Italian colonization, they secured caravan trade routes between the coasts and the highlands, which provided the clans with additional income.

Land Ownership:

As most parts of the pre-colonial Africa, land is owned commonly by the clan. It was because of this common ownership of land it was easy for colonialists and indigenous state to take away the land from pastoral nomads. Italians declared land owned by pastoralists as belonging to the State. Surprisingly, The 1994 Land Reform proclamation by the Eritrean government, did not rise up to the expectations of pastoralist communities, since did not accord them any legal rights to their land.

The three types of land ownership, which are prevalent among Saho are:

1. Regional land, people of one geographical area owned the land commonly regardless of their tribal distribution.

2. Tribal land, land owned on tribal basis. Here family has no specific rights to the land.

3. Family or sub-clan land, this was a land protected by specific family for their grazing or shifting cultivation. (Abdulkader S. Mohammed 1997: 11)

Socio-political structure

Traditional Saho society was strongly patriarchal and the roles of the grandfather and father was highly respected. The extended family had the power to control the behavior and conduct of its members, and elders were cherished as the cultural transmitters of the society. Marriage followed patterns related to the degree of family relations, and matrilateral cross-cousin marriage was strongly preferred. In the absence of formal government-supported security system, the extended family system and kinship affiliations played and continue to play an important role to support the aged, widows, the handicapped and young people. Those who live in urban areas support their family members and kins in the countryside.

The organizing principle of Saho society was a decentralized egalitarian (acephalous) system, in which leaders of sub-tribes and clans were democratically elected for specific period of time in general meetings (rakhbe) of elders and wise men. The main responsibility of the elected leaders were securing the basic requirement of their sub-tribes and mediating and settling problems according to the customary laws. 

Marriage

A family who wish to secure a spouse for their children will call a meeting and discuss the issue to ensure that the spouse whom they want to choose for their family member is not introduced, pledged or promised to another family.

 They try to find detailed information about the girl`s family life and gather information on her character through gossips and visits. this is done before the official negotiation takes place in order to choose a woman who will adjust to the family`s codes of behavior and to facilitate her integration into the household to avoid future tensions. The mediation is handled by the elders (shemagelle), one of whom should be the uncle of the spouse. If the two parties comes into an agreement, they introduce themselves into the family of the young women.

The mediators brings with them gifts such as coffee, sugar, money or wheat and give them to the family who in turn prepares food (porridge) for the guests. 

After eating the meal, honey and milk are served as a sign of hospitality, then they prepare coffee and start to discuss. The Saho call this process of starting discussion "afti-fakkot", which means "opening the mouth" to talk or discuss. All the gifts go to the moth

er of the fiancee (liisho), and the male family members of the couple fixed the date of the marriage and discuss what contribution shall be made as dowry by the groom or the gift to be given to the bride. 

Usually the marriage ceremony takes place one year after the engagement. In the rural areas, it is celebrated during the harvest seasons, whilst in the urban centres the preferred time is the summer vacation and the period before the celebration of the Ramadan. 

                                Saho bride

Religion

The Saho are predominantly Muslim. A few Christians, who are also known as the Irob, live in the Tigray region of Ethiopia and the Debub Region of Eritrea

Saho cultural group - Festival Eritrea 2006 - Asmara Eritrea.

source:http://www.allsaho.com/

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BILEN PEOPLE: ERITREAN ETHNIC GROUP THAT HAVE THEIR WOMEN WEARING NOSE RINGS SIGNIFYING THEIR SOCIAL STATUS

The Bilen (Blin or Bilin) are hardworking, agriculturalist Cushitic ethnic group on the Horn of Africa. They are primarily concentrated in central Eritrea, in and around the city of Keren and further south toward Asmara, the nation's capital

Beautiful Bilen girl from Eritrea

 They were formerly known as the Bogo or North Agaw. The meaning of the word 'Bilin' also is not known. Some version of the tradition holds that it is Saho word (belen) for Christian. In fact, 'Belen' in Saho means a Christian. (Kiflemariam Hamdé, 'Absmará yunivarsiti, p.3)
 
            Bilen woman from Eritrea in an awesome smile

The Blin first entered Eritrea from Ethiopia during the sixteenth century primarily agriculturalists, they
number about 96,000 and represent around 2.1% of Eritrea's population. About fifty percent of their
population are Christian, primarily Catholic, while the other fifty percent are 20th century converts to
Sunni Islam.

Bilen Tribe Girl Having A Haircut, Keren, Eritrea. Eric Lafforgue

Blin is also the name of their language, an Agaw language which belongs to the larger Afro-Asiatic language group. Sixty percent of the Christians have some understanding of Tigrinya. Seventy percent of the Muslims also use Tigre. Among the youth, Arabic is also spoken.

 Bilen woman from Eritrea

Keren is the second largest city in Eritrea, lying northwest of Asmara. It is the capital of the Anseba
province and home of the Bilen tribe. As of 2005, the population of this city has been estimated to be
86,483.The city is integrated with different types of tribes; Blin and Tigre are the dominant. It has two
High schools, St. Joseph and Keren Secondary School. Its climate is semi-desert hot during summary
and cold during winter. It is one of the fast growing cities in the country.

Bilen woman

Bilen traditional society is organised into kinship groups. The women are known for their brightly
coloured clothes and their gold, silver or copper nose-rings which indicate their social status.

Bilen old lady from Eritrea

Customs and Traditions of the Bilen Ethinic Group
Whenever one thinks about Eritrea, the immediate thing that comes to one’s mind is the existing strong harmony and coexistence among the nine ethnic groups of the country. Mutual respect and tolerance are deeply rooted in the Eritrean society which in turn serves as pillar for the present firm unity and nationalism – an asset rarely found in other countries. All these noble values of mutual respect and harmony symbolize the cherished slogan of unity in diversity. Despite the prevailing unity among all ethnic groups, each nationality is endowed with its own rich culture and tradition that distinguish the country as a multicultural nation.

Ethnic Bilen women from Eritrea

The spectacular pattern of living, customs, dressing style and other ritual ceremonies of each ethnic group are also some of the decisive factors for tourism attraction.
In this first article of a continuing series about Eritrean cultures and customs, we will try to explore the rich culture of the Bilen ethnic group. Members of the Bilen ethnic group are commonly found in the Anseba region, particularly south-central part of the country, in and around Keren town and south toward Asmara. Primarily agriculturalists, this ethnic group represent about 2.1% of Eritrea's population. Bilen is also the name of their language.

Marriage and Family Engagement
Among this ethnic group, engagement is a family’s affair. The future spouses have no say whatsoever in their future married life. If for some reason two lovers get married without prior permission from their respective parents, the boy is obliged to pay a certain sum of money plus an ox to the girl’s father.
The marriage candidate has to fulfill the following requirements:
Same religion, close blood relationship (in Moslem society), no blood relationship whatsoever up to seven generations (in Christian society), beauty, riches and health.
In engagement, the father of the boy has nothing to offer to the father of the girl. In fact it is the latter who is expected to give a cow or an ox to the former. Among this ethnic group, the boy and the girl are promised for engagement by their respective families while still in their mother’s wombs. On the third day of the engagement, the mother of the betrothed girl prepares boiled legume and distributes it among the villagers in the hope that her grandchildren might multiply like the sands of the sea.

Bilen lady

Honeymoon
Among the Bilen ethnic group, the honeymoon may go on for two to three months on end. During these months, the bride enjoys visits from friends and relatives. The process continues until the time that the bride returns to her family or Melesot.
12 days after the wedding ceremony, the groom goes down to a stream with his friends, to wash himself and his clothes. The bride remains in her room and has her hair plaited and her eyes shadowed with Kohli.
40 days after the wedding day, the groom ceremoniously puts down the sword which he had carried since the marriage ceremony for fear that the evil spirits may not whisk him away.
The “disarming” ceremony heralds the termination of the function held by the best man in the house of the couple. He goes off to his daily work and so does the groom. During the honeymoon period, the bride is not allowed to sit at the same table with her husband. She takes her meals with her sister in-law and she eats frugally. The groom, who sits with his friends at the table, has no inhibition regarding the way he eats.
Since the bride is confined to her room all through the honeymoon period, she is obliged to relieve herself in a special pot provided for the occasion. Furthermore, she is not permitted to call out for someone in a loud voice and is therefore provided with a bell. Among this ethnic group, a lot of money and energy is spent on honeymooning. Fortunately, there are always all sorts of relatives to foot the bill.

portrait of bilen woman

Post-honeymoon life
The Bilen ethnic group also follow other types of marriage that are out of the norm, namely Mer’a Hayam, Mer’a Chiluk, etc. When the honeymoon is over and life returns to normal once more, the couple continues to stay with the groom’s family. However, the eagerness of the groom to attend to his own affairs by himself and the continuous disagreement between the bride and her mother in-law may shorten the couple’s stay with the family and so they pack up and go to live in a separate place on their own. On the other hand, if the groom feels that he has no enough agricultural tools to start a decent life all by himself and if the bride and the mother in-law get along fine together, the couple may prolong their stay with the family.
As the soon as the couple have their own house, the role they play in the society shows some changes. Now they are full members of the society and enjoy all the rights and privileges in the village. Nonetheless, the woman remains unequal to the man. In a patriarchal and male dominated society like that of the Bilen, the husband is the only breadwinner and can do whatever he likes with the property. He can buy and sell as he pleases and everything in the house is under his control. The woman on the other hand is confined to the kitchen and bearing children. If she is given some work like poultry to tend or taking care of some household goods, it is because such activities may seem degrading for a man to even pay attention to.

Pregnancy and after
As in all other Eritrean ethnic groups, the Bilen show special traditional attitude towards pregnant women. If the woman is in full term, she is not allowed to perform heavy duty works such as grinding corn, carrying heavy loads, etc. She uses a lot of ointment and takes smoke baths frequently. She eats fatty foods and wears warm clothes. The pregnant woman refrains from going funerals and from attending big gatherings. The idea is to protect her from the hustle and jostle of a crowd.
When the time for her to give birth arrives, the pregnant woman goes to her parent’s house provided she is giving birth for the first time. If the labor pangs take more time than normal, prayers are said on her behalf. If however the labor pain continues, the whole village supplicates God for mercy.
At present, consulting the doctor in such case is becoming common. When a child is born, the umbilical cord is immediately cut with a sharp razor. Next, the midwife breathes in the infant’s ears and nostrils and then washes it with warm water.
If the newly born child is male, the whole household rejoices with exceeding gladness, for a male is the unquestioned heir of the family. That’s why they ululate seven times for a male and only three times for a female.
The neighborhood who come to the feast after hearing the ululation are served coffee and porridge and visitors arrive carrying coffee beans, milk, flour, butter, etc. Eight days after giving birth, the woman is allowed to go out of her house for a walk, but only after the ceremony of stepping over burning firewood. The child’s head is then shaved by the father who leaves a small tuft of hair on the skull above the forehead.
This is followed by another ceremony which includes the washing of the women’s laundry by the neighborhood women. After the end of the wash day, the women are invited for coffee and porridge at the house of the woman who gave birth.

Divorce
There are several reasons for couples to get divorced in the Bilin ethnic group. Some of them are listed below:

· If the husband doesn’t deliver

· If the husband beats his wife continually

· If the wife is loath to receive guests

· If the wife doesn’t prepare meals for her husband, etc.
Since the Bilen are mostly Catholics, divorce is very difficult to implement. It is therefore customary among this ethnic group that in the event that it is the man who is asking for divorce, he has only to leave the house. The wife remains in the house with all the couple’s properties under her care. On the other hand, if it is the wife who is asking for divorce, she has only to leave the house without much ado. But if divorce is wanted by both parties, the properties are divided equally between them.

Inheritance
In Sharkin and its environs the following items are subject to inheritance: house, title, debt, the fiancée or the wife of a dead person. But items such as woods, grazing lands and water holes belong to the community and are not inheritable.
Although most of the time inheritance is conducted without recourse to will and testament, there are instances where will and testaments is demanded. The reason why wills and testament is not needed is because the legal heirs are most of the time known before hand. However, the most common and acceptable way of transferring property is through written will.
When a husband dies, the first person in the line of inheritance is the wife. Next come the children, and in the absence of issue, his brothers become the heirs. In the event that he has no brothers, the estate goes to his cousins. If the husband has no issue, then the wife is entitled to all his property provided that she does not remarry. However, if she intends to remarry, she has to leave all the property to her children. If a person who losses his wife wants to remarry, he has firs to hand over the share of the deceased wife and her jewelry to the children.
Although girls are often deprived of their rights of inheritance, unmarried girls are entitled to an equal share along with their brothers. As in the rest of the Eritrean ethnic groups, the sharing of inheritance is made after the commemoration feast for the dead person is held. At times, the sharing of inheritance may get prolonged in the event that the heirs are too young to benefit from it.

Food and Diet
The most common cereal among this ethnic group is millet. This cereal is ground by women on millstones and the flour into kitcha, ga’at (thick porridge eaten with ghee), taita and hanza. Some cereals are eaten boiled. Most of the utensils used in the preparation of this food items are homemade.
The Bilen use diary products as their staple food, specializing in curd. This is because most of the members of this ethnic group are farmers raising livestock. Shiro is also one of the usually prepared dishes. Meat is eaten especially during holidays such as negdet (anniversary of patron saints), Easter, New Year, etc. and in some rare occasions when cattle are about to die for one reason or another they are slaughtered for meat. This is common practice among most of the nine Eritrean ethnic groups.
The members of the Bilen ethnic group consume a good amount of fruits and vegetables and use nug and sesame oils for cooking their food. Besides, the Bilen are great users of spices and condiments such as garlic, onion, mustard, pepper, etc. They also consume a large amount of wild fruits. The members of this ethnic group are also experts at preserving food, which are commonly used for long ravels. Some of these are roasted peanuts, tamarind, ground flaxseed, roasted wheat or barely, etc.
There is a specially prepared food known as beshelat which can be kept for a whole year. Its preparation is as follows: the dregs of surwa are made to boil and is then mixed with flour. The mixture is then poured on a mat and left to dry in the sun. Once dried, it is put in a container and sealed. It then can be eaten as porridge any time one feels like it. Roasted peanuts can be kept for long and do not need elaborate preparation.
Once grace is said, the children take their respective seats and wait for morsels of bread (which have been blessed by elder) to be handed out to them. Forbidden are drinking water while eating, eating from someone else’s side and taking a big morsel.
After every one is satiated, the eldest child goes around with bowl and a tin-can full of water helping the rest to wash their hands. The whole ceremony ends with a prayer.
The members of this ethnic group use various kinds of drinks such as debob, massa and berzi. Among these, debob is the most commonly used which is used in wedding feats, holidays, commemoration for the dead, celebration of patron saints, etc. It is said to be that debob can keep unspoiled up to four months. In addition to the above-mentioned beverages, other modern ones such as areki, local wine and sweet syrup are used.
The Bilen being generally followers of Islam and Catholicism, the diet they follow during lent or religious festival vary accordingly.

Clothing and Adornments
Footwear has been used irrespective of age or sex from early times among the members of this ethnic group. Before the coming of the Italians, a leather sandal known as medas was very common. This was crafted by the local people themselves.
At present, members of this ethnic group wear shoes of all types irrespective of age and sex, but most are fabricated by professionals. The use of rubber soles is also becoming popular, and modern shoes are making their entry in small towns.
In Sharkin and its environs, there are various types of ornament made by professionals for male and female customers. An unmarried girl puts an earring made of silver (and of gold if she is from rich family) called telal, and bracelets. If she is married, she puts four in each ear, and she puts a gold ornament (known as Sardat) on her forehead. Women who cannot afford silver or gold use beads instead.
Men sometimes use silver leg bands and silver earring, especially during the initiation ceremony. During mourning, a wife is expected to get rid of all her ornament and stays like that for a period of two years. If a wife during mourning gives birth to a child, she puts an imitation ornament made of palm leaves.
Children belonging to the Bilen ethnic group shave their heads and leave a small tuff of their hair on the crown of the head until they start to walk. For male children, this tuff of hair remains with them till the age of 10. Afterwards they have their heads shaved and during the initiation ceremony they wear their hair in Afro-style. When women grew old, they are expected to shave of their heads or have their hair plaited without ornament.
During mourning, some adult males are seen with their heads shaved off. As for widows, they are expected to shave their heads completely. Hairdressing is done by relatives and friends among the Bilen, and no professionals are set aside for such jobs.

Cosmetics
Bilen women put ointment in their eyes before applying kohl. For fashioning long and loose strands of hair with wet-look, Bilen women apply butter mixed with powder made of roasted durrah or plain earth to the strands. In addition, they apply henna to their hands and legs. Among this ethnic group, males do sometimes apply butter to their hair.

Tish or smoke bath
Smoke bath is very common among the female members of this ethnic group, especially among married women. They do it for hygienic and aesthetic reasons. Smoke bath is not always without its inconveniences and requires patience and great endurance to physical pain (as the heated smoke that is produced from the not completely dried twigs and leaves does sometimes burn the sensitive skin of the orifices and cause pain). Nevertheless, whether they like it or not, married women are expected by tradition to undergo the treatment until the ‘old’ skin is peeled off and a new yellowish and ‘beautiful’ one is grown instead.

Construction of houses
The people of Sharkin and its surrounding live in fixed villages. These members of the Bilen ethnic group are expected to leave space for streets when they build their houses. The width of the street should be large enough to allow yoked oxen and four pallbearers and the final decision for construction is given by the village elders. Old houses without owners are transferred to other people through a decision reached by village elders.
Only those who are ready to get married and establish families are given land to construct houses. Women and strangers do not have rights to land.
Among this ethic group, the commonest type of dwelling house is the augudo. However, some rich people are seen to build merebas. And at times it is common to see young spouses and less often long married couples living in agnets as temporary shelters.
As for agdos built by the members of this ethnic group, there is a strong similarity between the ones built in the highlands and those built by the Bilen. The only difference is in the household goods, furniture and facilities used. For example, the inside walls of the Bilen augudo is draped with a mat known as higag. A curtain known as litamet and a long veil to hide the bed known as aleget are also used.
Among the members of this ethnic group, the houses are constructed through village cooperation. The person whose house is being built by the village volunteer task force is expected to provide the workers with food, drink and tobacco. However, not all the houses are built in this manner, because after all the rich have the means to build their houses through professional masons.
At present, the trend is to build merebas, and here and there, cement, lime, chiseled stones are making their gradual introduction. The walls are nowadays built a bit higher than the past. The old traditional houses had only doors and no windows. But now not only windows are in use but doors are being made of woods crafted by professional carpenters.

Source:www.shabait.com/about-eritrea/history-a-culture/47-customes-and-traditions-of-the-bilen-ethinic-group

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SONINKE PEOPLE: INFLUENTIAL TRADERS AND TRAVEL-LOVING PEOPLE THAT FOUNDED THE FAMAOUS PRE-COLONIAL WEST AFRICAN EMPIRE OF GHANA

The Soninke (also called Sarakole, Seraculeh, or Serahuli) are influential-agriculturalists, well-known traveling and celebrated traders as well as Mandé-speaking people of West Africa that founded the famous  pre-colonial empire of Ghana c. 750-1240 CE. The Soninke who descend from the Bafour and are closely related to the Imraguen of Mauritania are historical celebrities in  Africa in general and sub-Saharan Africa in particular. They have an interesting, proud and rich history. The modern day state of Ghana in south of West Africa are different from them. However, modern-day Ghana took the Soninke empire of Ghana`s name after independence.

Soninke people of Senega dancing at the declaration of Bakel festivities. http://tostan.blogspot.com/

After contact with Muslim Almoravid traders from the north around 1066, Soninke nobles of neighboring Takrur were among the first ethnic groups from Sub-Saharan West Africa to embrace Islam. When the Ghana empire dispersed, the resulting diaspora brought Soninkes to Mali, Senegal, Mauritania, Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau. This diaspora included Wangara, famous traders who spread far from traditionally Mande areas. Hence the term Wangara is used today in Ghana and Burkina Faso to describe the Soninke populations in cities and towns

                            Soninke men playing traditional drum

Today Soninke people live in the West African countries of Mali, Senegal, The Gambia, and Mauritania. There are some Soninke communities in Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Ghana.

Fatoumata Diawara, a Soninke woman and one of Mali’s biggest musical treasures

The Soninke belonged to the pre-colonial indigenous Muslim merchants (jula), who travelled across the whole region, from the Guinean forest to the Sahel, and from Eastern Mali to the Atlantic coast. They traded in slaves, textiles, gold, salt, cattle, kola and other items back and forth the Senegambia and the Mande Plateau (Curtin 1975; Bathily 1989).

              Paris based rapper Booba is a Soninke man

Since the end of the 18th century, British and French travellers have spilled a lot of ink celebrating the merchant and mobile spirit of the Soninke, which they took as a sign of greater civilisation. “The Serawoollies [Soninke] are habitually a trading people” wrote Mungo Park (1816:62) about his journey through the kingdom of Gajaaga (Upper Senegal River Valley) at the end of the 18th century. The Soninke were subsequently defined as a ‘nation commerçante’, ‘les colporteurs de l’Afrique Occidentale’(trading nation’, ‘the peddlers of West Africa’) and even as ‘the Jews of West Africa’ (see Pollet and Winter 1971:111-3). The label ‘the Jews of West Africa’ has certainly endured over time and is occasionally used by contemporary Gambian Soninke as well. In the face of the fact that the Soninke were also agriculturalists, European observers, especially the colonial ones, tended to draw attention to mobility, and even reified it as an ethnic specificity—in ‘ethnie migratrice’ (cf. Amselle 1976:19; Jónsson 2007:9).

A migrant Lekwar woman of Soninke extraction in Algeria wearing traditional outfit and taking shot with the Algerian Presiden

Although anthropologists have contested essentialist representations of Soninke migration, mobility has remained at the centre of scholarly attention. This has largely to do with the fact that the Soninke have been one of the first groups in sub-Saharan Africa to migrate to Europe. The Soninke living on the borderland between Mauritania, Senegal and Mali are known to be one of the first and largest immigrant communities in France (see among others: Quiminal 1991; Timera 1996). The historical work of François Manchuelle (1997), who has brilliantly shown that Soninke labour migrations had a century long history prior to reaching France (from the 1950s), has also contributed to making the Soninke a well known case in migration literature.

Malian and Soninke singing legend Oumou Sangare performing in Essaouira, Morocco in June 2012

The ancient Soninke people who are one of the most beautiful people in West Africa have a total population of approximately 1,360,000 with over 850,000 people living in Mali. Senegal has 200,000, Côte d'Ivoire with 100,000, The Gambia with 70,000, Mauritania with  30,000 and Guinea-Bissau with 6,500 (ASHER, R.E. and C. MOSELEY (eds.) (2007) Atlas of the World's Languages. London / New York: Routledge)
The essence of Soninke society (Soninkaaxu) was a combination of three elements: farming, trading and studying Islam (soxeye, julaaxu, xarane).

                             Soninke people of Mali
Location
Soninke people today live throughout West Africa, but remain centered around the former homelands of the Ghana Empire and the valley of the upper Senegal river and along the Mali - Senegal border between Nara and Nioro du Sahel. In Mali there are concentrated mainly in the Nioro, Nara, Banamba, Yélémané and Kayes areas.

                                     Soninke men

Migrations seeking labor, encouraged under French colonial rule have led many Soninke to build communities in Dakar and other large cities in Africa and beyond. In Senegal they live mainly around Bakel, along the Senegal River, in an area including the cities of Bakel, Ouaoundé, Moudéri and Yaféra.

Soninke woman from Senegal pouring traditional tea

Soninke people live in the southeastern corner of The Gambia and Mauritania they are in the southern region of Sélibaby, alongside the Senegal River. There are also Soninke communities in Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau and Guinea.

                       Soninke girl from Mauritania with her sisters

There is a large and growing Soninke community in Paris, France. Trade networks, famously led by the Wangara mercantile confederations, spread Soninke people and culture throughout most of Mali and Senegal, southern Mauritania, northern Burkina Faso, as well as parts of the Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau.

Soninke woman from The Gambia

The Maraka - Soninke merchant communities and plantations (centered just north of the city of Segou, Mali) were an economic mainspring under the Bambara Empire, and built trade routes throughout the region.
Mali: mainly in the Nioro, Nara, Banamba, Yélémané and Kayes areas.

                                 Soninke people at a family meeting, Nara, Mali
Language
The Soninke speak a  Mande language which belongs to the larger Niger-Congo language phylum. The Mande languages are spoken in several countries in West Africa by the Mandé people and include Mandinka, Soninke, Bambara, Dioula, Bozo, Mende, Susu, and Vai. There are millions of speakers, chiefly in Burkina Faso, Mali, Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast.
Mande language is of 3 kinds,  the northern group called mandé-tan, a southern group known as mandé-fu and a  third subgroup (Western) called mandé-bu.
Soninke is part of the Western Mande group, which has three main subgroups, namely:
1. The Northwestern subgroup, which includes Soninke, Boso, Samogo and Bobo.
2. The Southwestern subgroup, which includes Loko.
3. The Central subgroup, which includes Manding and Susu.

Medina Kone, Soninke and Senegalese TV personality of French TV. She is a rapper and a journalist

Some Soninke words: iyo (yes), ayi (no), nawari (thank you), ko (who), maane (what), kan moxo (how), mannime ni? (how many?), sigi, xa sigi (stop, stop that), xa yeli yere (come here), Xa wuyi Jam? (Good Morning), An ña kan moxo? (How are you?), An haqqen toxo in da (Excuse me), Selli a ga nta an toorono (Please), Xa bisimilah! (Welcome), Ke ni manne ya? (What is that?), An gole moxo? (How is your work?), N sanganaya (I’m just kidding)

Soninke girl from The Gambia

History
Around the 3rd century B.C.E., nomadic groups herding animals in West Africa on the fringes of the Sahara became a threat to the Soninke people who lived south of the desert as farmers. The Soninke formed a confederation and defended themselves against the nomads and eventually formed the kingdom of Ghana.

Sketch of a young girl from Soninke tribe. Circa 1890

 During the 3rd century C.E., the Mande-speaking Soninke people were united by a great king who led them to conquer the city of Kumbi Saleh in what is now western Mali. Kumbi Saleh was an important city along an important north-south trade route. The king of the Soninke was known as the Kaya maghan , “king of the gold,” and as Ghana , “war chief.” He belonged to the royal clan of Ouagadou, and the Soninke first named their kingdom after this royal family.

Soninke Moorish man and two wives.He holds an instrument known as an ngoni 

Ancient Ghana Empire:
The three main sources of knowledge about the ancient Sudan - archaeology, oral history, and the books written by Africans or Arabs-tell us a good deal about the famous empire of Ghana.
The Soninke certainly built their state before AD 773, the date of the first North African reference to it. They were nomads and traders in this region in very distant times. A tradition recorded in the Tarikh as-Sudan, an important history book that was written in Timbuktu about AD 1650, says that there were twenty-two kings of Ghana before the beginning of the Muslim Era (622) and twenty-two kings after that. If this were true, it could place the origins of the Ghana kingdom in about AD 300 (1965 Longma1s published textbook of Basil Davidson, F.K Buah and J. F Ade Ajaye, The Growth of African Civilizations: A HISTORY OF WEST AFRICA 1000-1800).
By 800, in any case, Ghana had become a powerful trading state called Wagadu (Ouagadou) by its rulers, the name of Ghana came into general use because of one of the king's titles, ghana which means "war chief.' Each succeeding was known by his own name, and also by the title of ghana. Another of his titles was kaya maghan. This means 'lord of the gold', because the king controlled the export of that precious metal.
Nothing is known about the political methods or history of Ghana under its early kings. What probably happened was that heads of large families or descent-lines among the Soninke, encouraged by the needs and opportunities of the trade in gold and other goods with Berber merchants of the Sahara, saw an advantage in having a single ruler. So they elected a king from among themselves. This king's duty was to organise the trade and keep good relations with the Saharan traders, as well as acting as senior religious leader and as representative on earth of the 'founding ancestors' of the Soninke people.
In this way the king gathered power. He controlled the trade within Soninke territory. He made gifts and gave rewards to all who served him.

Soninke soldiers

Next came an expansion of Soninke power over neighbouring peoples who were also busy with trade: the wider the territory the Soninke could control, the more prosperous they would be. By 800, the
king of Ghana was able to make lesser kings or chiefs obey his laws and pay him taxes. And so the king's wealth increased. Withmore wealth, he also had more power. He could command the services of many descentlines. He could raise big armies. He could employ large numbers of messengers and other servants. He could pay for the needs of a growing empire.
Some account of how this was done for the later kings of Ghana is glven in books written by North African and Spanish Arab authors during the eleventh and twelfth centuries AD.
One of these books offers a brilliantly clear picture of the court of the emperor of Ghana in about AD 1065, and of the way in which that emperor, whose name was Tunka Manin, organised his power and wealth. This book was the work of a Spanish Arab called Al-Bakri. He finished it in 1067.

The Achievement of Ghana
From this account of Al-Bakri's we can know a little more about what had happened during earlier times. It appears that many of the North African and Berber traders of the Sahara accepted Islam after the Arab conquest of the eighth century. They abandoned their old religions and became Muslims. They were made welcome at the capital of the emperor of Ghana. He was not a Muslim; he believed in Ghana's own religion, but he allowed the Muslims to build a town of their own.
The 'town of the Muslim traders' was ten kilometres away from the emperor's own town with its surrounding settlements. While the latter were built in the traditional materials of West Africa - hardened clay, thatch, and wooden beams - the most successful Muslim traders he preferred to build their houses in stone, according to their own customs in North Africa. It is not known exactly where the capital was when Al-Bakri wrote his book. In the course of Ghana's long history, the king`s capital was undoubtedly moved from one place to another. But we can add a good deal to Al-Bakri's picture by studying the remains of Ghana`s last capital, which lay at Kumbi Saleh about 320 kilometres north of modern Bamako. Here too there was a town where the king of Ghana lived, and another nearby town where the Muslim traders had their houses and stables. At the height of its prosperity, before AD 1240, this city of Kumbi was evidently the biggest West African city of its day, and had as many as 15,000 inhabitants or even more.
So long as they obeyed the laws of Ghana and paid their taxes, the traders from the north were sure of safety and hospitality. This was a partnership in long-distance trade that went on for a very long time. Its safely depended on the strength of the emperor and his government. Al-Bakri has left us a description of all that. King Tunka Manin, he wrote "is the master of a large empire and of a formidable power'. So powerful was this king, that he could put out '200,000 warriors in the field more than 40,000 of them being armed with bow and arrow'. But the real strength of the Ghana armies, as we know from other North African sources, came from their power in iron-pointed spears. Their wagons like their government, were stronger than those of their neighbouring peoples; and it was this strength which helped to build their empire.
Working from eyewitness accounts which he had received from Muslim travellers, Al-Bakri described the pomp and majesty of King Tunka Manin"
"When the king gives audience to his people, to listen to their
complaints and to set them to rights, he sits in a pavilion around
which stand ten pages holding shields and gold-mounted swords.
On his right hand are the sons of the princes of his empire,
splendidly clad and with gold plaited in their hair.
The governor of the city is seated on the ground in front of the
king, and all around him are his counsellors in the same position.
The gate of the chamber is guarded by dogs of an excellent breed.
These dogs never leave their place of duty. They wear collars of
gold and silver, ornamented with metals.
The beginning of a royal meeting is announced by the beating
of a kind of drum they call deba. This drum is made of a long piece
of hollowed wood. The people gather when they hear its sound.. ."
The memory of these old glories were long remembered among the peoples of the Western Sudan. Five hundred years later, for example, a writer of Timbuktu called Mahmud Kati entertained his readers with the stories of those ancient days. In his valuable history book, the Tarikh al-Fattush, he tells how a certain king of Ghana of the seventh century, called Kanissa'ai, possessed one thousand horses, and how each of these horses 'slept only on a carpet, with a silken rope for halter', and had three personal attendants, and was looked after as though it were itself a king.
These old stories, magnified and embroidered with the passing of the years, also tell how the kings of Ghana used to give great banquets to their subjects, feeding ten thousand people at a time, and dispensing gifts and justice to all who came. Such stories give an idea of the greatness of Ghana's reputation in the years of its power.

Soninke Women of Mauritania Painting Their Hut

Government of the empire
If we look carefully behind the travellers' information collected and written down by Al-Bakri and other Arab writers, and behind the stories that were afterwards told in countless homes for many years, we can trace several developments in ways of life.
With the growth of Ghana, and of other states like Ghana, the peoples of West Africa were inventing new methods of living together, of governing themselves, of raising money to pay for government, and of producing wealth. These ways needed a single strong authority or government. which could rule over many lesser authorities or governments. This central authority or government could only, in the thought and customs of the times, be a king.....

                                      Soninke girl

Revenue and wealth of Ghana
The ruler of Ghana, Al-Bakri tells us, had two main sources of revenue,' of wealth with which to pay for government. These were taxes of two kinds. The first of these was what we should today call an import and export tax. This tax consisted of sums of money (or more probably their equal in goods) which traders had to pay for the right to bring good into Ghana, or to take other goods out of the empire. 'The king of Ghana', wrote Al-Bakri, 'places a tax of one dinar of gold on each donkey-load of salt that comes into his country'. But he also 'places a tax of two dinars of gold on each load of salt that goes out'. Similar taxes higher or lower in value as the case may be, were applied to the loads of copper and other goods."
The second type of tax is what we call the production tax. It was applied to gold, the most valuable of all the products in the kingdom. "All pieces of gold that are found in the empire" says Al-Bakri on this point 'belong to the emperor'. But this regulation was more than a means of collecting royal wealth. It was also a way of keeping up the of gold. For the emperor had not insisted on taking possession all pieces of gold, Al-Bakri explains then "gold would become so abundant as practically to lose its value."
Ancient Ghana, in short adopted the monopoly system that is employed this day for another precious commodity, diamond.
Salt was mined to the northeast of Ghana in the Sahara Desert, and Arab traders from the north loaded their camels and donkeys with salt to trade for gold. Traders had to go through Ghana, and so Ghana became like a middleman in the world of the salt-gold trade. Other goods were brought from the north as well, like dried fruit, leather, cotton cloth, and copper.
The salt-gold trade allowed Ghana to become a rich empire. Gold dust was used in trade, but the king kept the gold “nuggets” for himself, allowing the people to trade using only gold dust.

Soninke man, 1893

The fall of Ghana: the Almoravids
But a long period of confusion came between the fall of Ghana and the triumph of Mali. After about 1050, Ghana began to be invaded by Berber warriors from the north-west, from the Mauritanian Sahara. These Berbers were driven by troubles of their own, mainly poverty, into striving for a share in the wealth of more prosperous neighbours. Soon after AD 1000 they began to look for a new means of livelihood.
The solution they found, as so often in history, took a religious form. There arose among them a devout and very strict Muslim leader called Abdullah ibn Yasin. He established a centre of religious teaching, called a hermitage. He and those who followed him became known as the people of the hermitage, Al-Murabethin, or the Almoravids. Gradually, ibn Yasin brought the Berber communities of the far western lands under his influence. At the same time his missionaries set about the task of converting the rulers of those states in far western Africa whom they could reach, especially in Takrur (or Futa Toro), and in this they had some success. In 1056, moving northwards into Morocco, the Almoravids captured the great city of Sijilmasa, the main northern trading centre for West African gold. From there they went further to the north, conquering the rest of Morocco. Then they crossed the Straits of Gibraltar, and took over Al-Andalus, or Muslim Spain.
A southern section of the Almoravid movement meanwhile moved against Ghana. Its leader, Abu Bakr, put himself at the head of a Berber confederation, made an alliance with the people of Takrur, who later waged a long war against Ghana. In 1054 he took the city of Audoghast. In 1076. after many battles. the Almoravids seized the capital of the empire.
But these invaders, like others after them, could not hold the West African lands they had taken. There was much resistance. There were many revolts. Abu Bakr was killed while attempting to suppress one of these in 1087. By this time, however, the Ghana empire had fallen apart. Its last kings had authority over only a few of its former provinces, and we know almost nothing about them. Great changes were on the way.

painting of Soninke woman

The successor state of Ghana
In the time of confusion, set in motion by the Almoravid Berbers but soon bringing other peoples into action, the Ghana empire broke up and some smaller states tried to build small empires of their own. One was the state of Takrur. Another was Diara. A third was Kaniaga. Some of these, a new name now enters on the scene, that of the Peul (or Fuble/Fulani).
When Ghana empire suffered a blow from Abu Bakr and his armies, the Fulani of Takrur in Senegal became independent. They in turn set out upon the road of conquest. After about AD 1200, they took control of the kingdom of Diara once a province of Ghana.
Their most successful leader, whose name was Sumanguru, seized Kumbi Saleh, then the capital of Ghana, in about 1203. Meanwhile other Fulani and allied peoples became powerful another old Ghana province, the kingdom of Kaniaga.
But this new attempt at building an empire out of the ruins of Ghana met with no better fortune than the Berber efforts led by Abu Bakri. Two developments brought Sumanguru's enterprise to defeat. The first was that the Muslim traders of Kumbi Saleh, Ghana's last capital, reject Sumanguru's overlordship. For reasons that were no doubt partly religious and partly commercial, they left Kumbi Saleh and travel
northward, to form a new trading centre at Walata,' far beyond the reach of Sumanguru's soldiers. Secondly, in about 1240 or maybe a few years earlier, Sumanguru was challenged by the Mandinka
people of the littlle state of Kangaba, near the headwaters of the River Niger. The two armies fought each other at a famous battle. Sumanguru was defeated and killed. His chiefs and generals retreated to Takrur, where they and their successors continued to rule for many years.
Sumanguru's defeat opened a new chapter in history. For the little state of Kangaba was the heart and core of the future empire of Mali. It was to be the Mandinka people who would now bring peace and order to  wide regions of the Western Sudan.
Economy
The Soninke traditionally engage in both trade and agriculture. During the rainy season, men and women both cultivate. However women usually stay at home to cook and take care of their children. They also do others work, such as dyeing cotton material. A typical Soninke color is Indigo. The Soninke attained a high standard of living. Emigration took a huge place in their life. Most of the time women, children and old stay at home alone when the young men go to neighbor cities to find money. Since the 1960s, the majority of West African immigrants in France came from this ethnic group. The Soninke are still now the backbone of countries like the Gambia, Senegal and Mali. Through all history they have been traders in gold, salt and even diamonds.

Foods
The Soninke have a variety of foods. As an example, breakfast foods include “fonde”, porridge made of millet, sugar, milk, and salt, and “Sombi” porridge made of rice, millet or corn. For lunch “demba tere” and “takhaya” are very common, both containing rice and peanuts, frequent Soninke ingredients. "Dere”, a stew, is a mixture of millet and beans

Socio-political structures
The ancient Soninke empire was governed by a powerful emperor who controlled the Trans-Saharan Trade. His power was limited by nobles in charge of the bureaucracy, taxes, army, justice and other duties. The central government of the empire was composed of the emperor and those nobles who can be considered as important advisors. The peripheral courts had some freedom deciding on their interior problems however they were supervised by the imperial court concerning imperial problems as well as the army. In the time of Wagadu there was an emperor at the head of the empire followed by the noble’s families. Even after the decline of the empire the majority of the Soninke families still maintained this hierarchy in their villages. In the Soninke social organization everyone occupies a place. Being king or a smith was not by choice, it was an inherited position. This hierarchy is very important in Soninke culture and it is respected by the Soninke. This structural social organization is divided in three levels.
Like other groups in the region, Soninke society is hierarchically divided into endogamous status groups. The first class are the ″Hooro″, the free men. They have the highest social rank. The Hooro (sing. hoore) are the rulers, they have the right to punish and dispense justice. The first class in the “Hooro” are the “tunkalemmu”, the princes. They are the noblemen that exercise authority. Only a tunkalemmu” can become king. It's an inherited position. The next class after the princes, “tunnkalemmu”, are the “mangu”. The “mangu” are the advisors of the princes. They are their confidants. They act as mediators in conflicts between different classes of “Hooro” or free man. The “mangu” originate from the “kuralemme”, warrior class. In times of war the Mangu become heads of the army. The last class of the “hooro”, free man is the “modinu”, the priest or people who historically have been very active in scholarly education and religious careers.. Their origin is from the influence of Islam in Soninke society. They dispense justice, and educate the population. They teach them Islam and protect them with prayers. They are very respected for their religious knowledge.
The second level of the Soninke organization is the “naxamala” which is also divided in many other classes. The “naxamala” are the dependent men and client groups of ‘casted’ artisans for the Hooro. The “tago” or blacksmiths occupy the highest position. They make weapons and work tools. They also make jewelry. They are respected for their knowledge with iron. The next class after blacksmith is the carpenter, “sakko”. They are the friends of the inhabitants of the forest. They are the confidants and the masters of devils. They are important because of their skills and knowledge with wood. The next class is the praise-singer, “Jaroo”. During ceremonies they are in charge of animation, speaking, and singing. They are the most famous in the “naxamala” dependent class . They are the only ones authorized to say anything they want. They are the orators of the society. They tell the history of most important Soninke families. The last class in the “naxamala” class is the cobbler, “Garanko”. They are in charge of making leather shoes, saddles and saber sheaths.
The lowest level of the Soninke social hierarchy are the slaves known as ‘komo’. The “komo”, slaves work for the masters. Their masters had to take care of them but this was not always the case. The slaves have always been the major labor force in Soninke society. The prosperity of Soninke society was due to their dominance in farming. In the past there were more slaves than free-men.

Marriage
In Senegal, as elsewhere, marriage is seen as a major family event. It is celebrated joyously. In countries Soninke , customs relating to its celebration may vary from one locality to another, but all in common that they are available murundé (research), the Tamma (symbolic franc) and futtu (the definitive agreement wedding) above the festivities. If some young people today wish to respect the traditions, heritage they try to keep jealously, modernity is gaining ground and is a serious threat.

Marriage is an act of love where everything is in the union of two people in love with each other. For many couples and their families, this event is undoubtedly one of the happiest days, if not the most beautiful of their lives. Senegal, each ethnic group has its way of conceiving marriage. In Soninke , it is sacred. Soninke countries, marriage is primarily an alliance between two clans or lineages.

The different stages of marriage are, in the case of a boy and a girl who marry for the first time, rigorously treated by parents. There is, first, murunde (research) that marks the official start of the wedding process. When the young man of marriageable age is the girl who suits him, he opens his father and he expressed his desire to take a wife. According Tapa Bathily village Tuabou , former capital of the kingdom Gadiaga the particularity Soninke environment is, first, the choice of caste. " Marriage in Soninkés is traditionally between members of the same clan. If you marry anyone, you might have problems. A bad woman is worse. Soninke environment, to get married, it is not enough to know the caste, we must also know the family. It also requires that the woman is a good family , "he says. This is not the father of the pretender to fetch the bride. He sends to the family of the girl with an emissary who is traditionally linked. This can be a noble, a griot or a slave.

THE "Tamma" OR AGREEMENT IN PRINCIPLE

" When a young man is old enough to marry, he can see a girl and talk to her. Previously, parents who felt their child is old enough to marry met with other members to find a so-called good family, able to complete their family , "said Mr. Bathily.
After murunde one day is taken for symbolic or Tamma franc is now mounted to 500 francs in Bakel. " This is an agreement in principle not binding on the beautiful family. Sometimes if there is a highest bidder, the family can change your mind, which is not normal , "said Idrissa Diarra. In other countries, the date of the seizure of Tamma is considered a strong symbol guarantee the young man's determination to marry the girl. According to Mara Danthira Traoré area Modinkané , husband, after Tamma must maintain his future wife. According to him, he shall, during each lunar month, contribute to the nourishment of his fiancée. " Formerly, when the principle is stopped, the girl was in her and her parents took her to not cause a problem. For this reason we expect the day before the wedding to give dowry and celebrate the wedding the next day. Today, the situation has changed. Soon as there is engagement, it is said that the husband must maintain his future wife and take care of her. On the occasion of the celebrations Korité Tabaski and also, it must make a move , "said the lady.

Circumcision among the Soninke

Circumcision is one of the most important in the life of a boy Soninké times. Like many other communities in the world, is a practice circoncion originally unknown. As long as we go back, the Soninko have always practiced circoncison regarding young boys. Such as marriage or baptism, circumcision is a very important step in the life of young Soninke. It is simply held for life a whole age group. It gives meaning to Fedde which brings all the boys in the same age group. This age group are together birou ie the case of men. There is a life before circumcision and life after this episode. In Soninkara the word murunté means a boy who is not yet circumcised. Thus we differentiate a circumcised and uncircumcised and person. In Soninkés the word murunté part of pejorative vocabulary when it is launched in the face of someone. This step is allowing the murunté to become a man. This is the passage from adolescence to adulthood.

Soninke men often talk about their circumcision by the fact that they took the pants. Circumcision is not limited only to this surgical act tradionnele beyond its simple procedure, the ritual of circumcision highlights, physical endurance, pain, courage. This ritual reveals the intrinsic character of the child. Formerly connoisseurs repèraient future strongmen strong character. Each boy has a duty to remain stoic and enduring in pain. And he honors his family, his name and he shall be praised and sung by griots related to his family.

Ceremonies related to circumcision differ among regions and localities Soninkés. Often these ceremonies are based on one age group. Preparations and ceremonies of pre-circumcision are diverse and variés.Les boys from circumcision, accompanied by BAWO, the master of initiation, go round the family and receive gifts. The eve of the circumcision, the head of blacksmiths , the xirise withon appoints people who will be responsible for performing the operation. Men nominated should refrain from any sexual relationship overnight. The night before the operation, the boys dancing in the company of BAWO, reciting incantations protecting. The BAWO is not anyone, it belongs to a family who has the power to tell the souxouña (bloodsuckers and dotted terrible powers) and other mouno (genius who has scoured the land, retires the bottom of the water). Initiated with members of his family, they go to the bush and gather medicinal plants that are supposed to protect future circumcised bad witches and spellcasters.

The eve of the ceremony, we organize dances and future circumcised dance all night. Thursday evening we organize dance gayinde that will mobilize all young people and village elders in particular fedde concerned. Dancers (men, women, youth, combined) fall into circular line around the drummers drumming. They lead the dance late into the night. After a night of dancing and singing, future circumcised go into houses and eat everything they find. They were previously prepared the most delicious dishes.

In the morning, the boys go to the river to wash. In return, their heads are shaved and made to wear clothes circumcised. All children are gathered in one place, always led by BAWO. Adult men of the place were also present.

Once the foreskin cut, it is given to the father who gave it to turn to mom. The latter will be buried in a corner of the forest. The children then take the traditional white tunic and cap circumcised.

Maxims and Poverbes Soninké: DIGAN JUPPU WALLA DIGAN XOORO
1 - Suwanne i roxoye moxo moxo, year na ga ra yi nexeyi year goxundini
Whatever the smallness of a fly, if you underestimate it, it can make you sick (dont underestimate anyone)

2 - Maran lenme i defoye doore lefi fe
The small attic does not mean a lack of clay

3 - Sokke be bakka ga jin naxaanen na ta ke battaran yinbe lagana
The grass growing in the middle of the water, cannot be reached by fire

4 - Maxa nkitte lo yitte i korome naxa
Do not put your hands between the tree and its bark

5 - Maaren gajanŋe has tiidini ago nta x kumini
A familly argument can only make a "smoke" but not "fire". (A family argument is always circumscribed before degenerating)

6 -. Yaali wo sere be ga nti tappe mulla manna xa na nwalla kaccingolli TinEye is
one who does not like rope knots must not carry a bag of nodes

7 - Finkinten ga da janba lege gede EQIA has geesundaanan do Naani doome
If the blind dance "Janba" at the well, there is no doubt he is with his guide

8 - Soron ñan Xawa tini year nwujamu da, xa nñinme my Xawa tini da nwujamu
It is others who should say hello, not yourself.

                    NBA star Mamodou Datt is half Soninke

9 - Manna da xan soro filli gajanŋundi do tanpille bat, gelli baanen gan ta do tanmu do Karago
When two people vies for the sharing of  hundred francs, except that one would have seventy-five.

10 - Tonu Maxa year kallu yaxaren ko da, ga year my Maano rondi year konpe
Do not tell your truth to your stepmother, your fiancée will desert you

11 - Maaren gajanŋe has tiidini ago nta x kumini
A familly argument smoke, but never catch fire

12 - Sokke be seren ga ta ken yaaxen karana walla
The blade of grass can pierce your eye, one doesnt see it developing.

13 - Seren maxa kattund'i sin yinme na ti siwanne taaxeyi
Do not pull the horse's head because a fly is placed there.

14 - An ga nexu janbayen NA, siiti year jon ña
dont  underestimate a plot hatched before you.

15 - Grab nes rege toro yi, a na you i jootan Naani
When the horn is equal to the ear, it doesnt make the two equal.

16 - Sere i Faaba taaxu bere baane Kanma, ken lanti year Faaba Naana njoota
If a child sit with his father in the same place, it doesnt make him his equal.

17 - An ga na yaxare kin'i teyinnen Na na thee gaaga yillen your kerene yi
If you tell a woman to sell her copèpouse it will sell before the next

18 - Maxa nkitte lo jiiba yi gan year doroke thee xanne
Do not put your hand in a pocket boubou doors if you do not own it.

DIGAN JUPPU WALLA DIGAN XOORO

19 - ga da Finkinten janba lege gede EQIA has geesundaanan do Naani doome
If the blind dance "Janba" beside the well, he is with his guide

20 - Soron ñan Xawa tini year nwujamu da, xa nñinme my Xawa tini da nwujamu It is for people to say hello to you, not yourself.

21 - Yenbe be kumiini ga jin naxaanen na maxa dagayi An Na ti fuutene
fire shining in the middle of the river, better blow to revive

22 - Manna da xan your Kattu yaaxe, sexu Maxan jin naaxu ga fe
What has one foot in one eye, but a restless sleep.

                   Soninke people
source:http://www.soninkara.org/


Oumou Sangare: Sonic And Political Muscle
by ROBERT CHRISTGAU
With the death of Miriam Makeba, Mali's Oumou Sangare stands unchallenged as Africa's most important female singer. Sangare was singing for money at age 5 and supporting her family at 13. Now, after a 12-year absence during which she raised a son and ran a hotel, a farm and other businesses, she has released a new album called Seya.

No major African musician has been more outspoken about women's issues. Take the song "Wele Wele Wintou," which criticizes child marriage. The title phrase, which repeats many times during the frenetic five-minute track, means something like "ring the bells." In between "wele weles," Sangare warns fathers that girls shouldn't marry before they have breasts, which is when their life as women begins. For Malian women, Sangare is unquestionably an inspiration.

But in America, her political muscle is conveyed mostly through music. Notice the flute and drums on the lead track, "Sounsoumba." I'm glad "Sounsoumba" advocates "respect for women" and "solidarity in marriage." But I don't need to know exactly what Sangare is saying, because I'm so impressed by what she's saying it over: the turbo power of Paris-based, Guadeloupe-raised, Ivory Coast-born flutist Malik Mezzadri and trap drums by Will Calhoun of the American rock band Living Colour.

Ingrid Monson (left), Quincy Jones Professor of African-American Music, dances with Oumou Sangare,

Sangare's will to marshal such forces is new. When she came up in the '90s, she was known for just slightly modernizing the rural music of the Malian south. Seya is far more varied and ambitious, utilizing more than 50 backup players. "Donso" is an allegorical song about hunting, but notice the violin intro; the hypnotic rhythm is traditional. But that violin part conjures the Cairo string sound that dominated North African pop for a half-century.

Clearly a woman of power, Oumou Sangare is claiming that sound, and this proud internationalism only makes her seem stronger. But ultimately, her strength proceeds from her commitment to Mali. Nowhere on the album is she more robust than in its finale. "Koroko" means entertainer, and on the song of the same name, some dozen Malian men and women help Sangare celebrate all the korokos who vitalized her impoverished nation before her.




Photos of Soninke people

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